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Preinscripciones

Chapter resources

1 — Approach to the Trauma Patient

  1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Risk and protective factors/child abuse and neglect/violence prevention/injury. Accessed April 25, 2023. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/childabuseandneglect/riskprotectivefactors.html
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  3. Foote CW, Doan XL, Vanier C, et al. Suicide versus homicide firearm injury patterns on trauma systems in a study of the National Trauma Data Bank (NTDB). Sci Rep. 2022;12:15672. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-17280-2
  4. Hodgetts T, Porter C. Major Incident Management System. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley; 2013.
  5. ICS Review Document. ICS Resource Center. Accessed April 25, 2023. https://training.fema.gov/emiweb/is/icsresource/
  6. Peterson C, Miller GF, Barnett SB, Florence C. Economic cost of injury-United States, 2019. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2021;70:1655-1659. http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7048a1
  7. Malik N, Chernbumroong S, et al. The BCD Triage Sieve Outperforms All Existing Major Incident Triage Tools: Comparative Analysis Using The UK National Trauma Registry Population. Published May 14, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2021.100888
  8. Merriam-Webster. Trauma. Accessed April 20, 2023. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/trauma
  9. Milwood Hargrave J, Pearce P, Mayhew ER, Bull A, Taylor S. Blast injuries in children: a mixed-methods narrative review. BMJ Paediatr Open. 2019;3:e000452. doi:10.1136/bmjpo-2019-000452
  10. Moscardi MFJ, Meizoso JP, Rattan R. Trauma Epidemiology. In: Nasr A, Saavedra Tomasich F, Collaço I, Abreu P, Namias N, Marttos A, eds. The Trauma Golden Hour. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26443-7_2
  11. National Institute of General Medical Sciences. (2023). National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS). https://www.nigms.nih.gov/education/fact-sheets/Pages/physical-trauma.aspx
  12. Newgard CD, Lewis RJ, Kraus JF. Steering wheel deformity and serious thoracic or abdominal injury among drivers and passengers involved in motor vehicle crashes. Ann Emerg Med. 2005;45:43-50.
  13. Paun S, Beuran M, Negoi I, Runcanu A, Gaspar B. Trauma: Epidemiology: where are we today? Chirurgia. 2011;106(4):439-443.
  14. Rossiter ND. Trauma: the forgotten pandemic? Int Orthop. 2022;46(1):3-11. doi: 10.1007/s00264-021-05213-z
  15. Stiffman, et al. Household composition and risk of fatal child maltreatment. Pediatrics. 2002.
  16. CHEMM. Triage guidelines. Accessed April 25, 2023. https://chemm.hhs.gov/triage.htm#sec4
  17. World Health Organization. 2021. Injuries and violence. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/injuries-and-violence#:~:text=Injuries%20result%20from%20road% 20traffic,or%20others%2C%20among%20other%20causes
  18. Guideline for the field triage of injured patients, with permission, American College of Surgeons (https://www.facs.org/quality-programs/trauma/systems/field-triage-guidelines), 2021

2 — ITLS Patient Assessment

  1. Newgard CD, Fischer PE, Gestring M, et al; the Writing Group for the 2021 National Expert Panel on Field Triage. National guideline for the field triage of injured patients: recommendations of the National Expert Panel on Field Triage, 2021. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2022;93(2):e49-e60. DOI: 10.1097/TA.0000000000003627
  2. American College of Surgeons, Committee on Trauma. Advanced Trauma Life Support Student Manual, 10th ed. Chicago: American College of Surgeons; 2018.
  3. Meyer, AJ,  IV Versus IO: Does Your Site Of Access Matter In Cardiac Arrest? NAEMSP Article Bites, Jan 2023 https://naemsp.org/2023-1-4-iv-vs-io-does-your-site-of-access-matter-in-cardiac-arrest/  Last Accessed Sept 3, 2024

3 — Hemorrhage Control and Shock Management

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  3. Standl T, Annecke T, Cascorbi I, Heller AR, Sabashnikov A, Teske W. The nomenclature, definition and distinction of types of shock. Dtsch Ärztebl Int. 2018;115(45):757.
  4. Leach R, Treacher D. The pulmonary physician in critical care: oxygen delivery and consumption in the critically ill. Thorax. 2002;57(2):170-177.
  5. Bartlett RH. Physiology of gas exchange during ECMO for respiratory failure. J Intensive Care Med. 2017;32(4):243-248.
  6. Spinelli E, Bartlett RH. Anemia and transfusion in critical care: physiology and management. J Intensive Care Med. 2016;31(5):295-306.
  7. Monnet X, Marik P, Teboul JL. Passive leg raising for predicting fluid responsiveness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med. 2016;42:1935-1947.
  8. Monnet X, Rienzo M, Osman D, et al. Passive leg raising predicts fluid responsiveness in the critically ill. Crit Care Med. 2006;34(5):1402-1407.
  9. Kelly N, Esteve R, Papadimos TJ, et al. Clinician-performed ultrasound in hemodynamic and cardiac assessment: a synopsis of current indications and limitations. Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg. 2015;41:469-480.
  10. Pourmand A, Pyle M, Yamane D, Sumon K, Frasure SE. The utility of point-of-care ultrasound in the assessment of volume status in acute and critically ill patients. World J Emerg Med. 2019;10(4):232.
  11. Paladino L, Subramanian RA, Nabors S, Sinert R. The utility of shock index in differentiating major from minor injury. Eur J Emerg Med. 2011;18(2):94-98.
  12. Marenco CW, Do WS, Lammers DT, Horton JD, Azarow K, Eckert MJ. Validation of Shock Index Pediatric-Adjusted for children injured in war zones. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2020;89(4):642-648.
  13. Olaussen A, Blackburn T, Mitra B, Fitzgerald M. shock index for prediction of critical bleeding post‐trauma: a systematic review. Emerg Med Australas. 2014;26(3):223-228.
  14. Schroll R, Swift D, Tatum D, et al. Accuracy of shock index versus ABC score to predict need for massive transfusion in trauma patients. Injury. 2018;49(1):15-19.
  15. Zarzaur BL, Croce MA, Fischer PE, Magnotti LJ, Fabian TC. New vitals after injury: shock index for the young and age × shock index for the old. J Surg Res. 2008;147(2):229-236.
  16. Lammers DT, Marenco CW, Morte KR, Bingham JR, Martin MJ, Eckert MJ. All trauma is not created equal: redefining severe trauma for combat injuries. Am J Surg. 2020;219(5):869-873.
  17. Lammers D, Conner J, Marenco C, et al. Optimal prospective predictors of mortality in austere environments. J Surg Res. 2020;255:297-303.
  18. Halvorson JJ, Anz A, Langfitt M, et al. Vascular injury associated with extremity trauma: initial diagnosis and management. JAAOS-J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2011;19(8):495-504.
  19. Nirula R, Maier R, Moore E, Sperry J, Gentilello L. Scoop and run to the trauma center or stay and play at the local hospital: hospital transfer’s effect on mortality. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2010;69(3):595-601.
  20. Smith RM, Conn AK. Prehospital care: scoop and run or stay and play? Injury. 2009;40:S23-S26.
  21. Dubecq C, Dubourg O, Morand G, Montagnon R, Travers S, Mahe P. Point-of-care ultrasound for treatment and triage in austere military environments. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2021;91(2S):S124-S129.
  22. O’Dochartaigh D, Douma M. Prehospital ultrasound of the abdomen and thorax changes trauma patient management: a systematic review. Injury. 2015;46(11):2093-2102.
  23. van der Weide L, Popal Z, Terra M, et al. Prehospital ultrasound in the management of trauma patients: systematic review of the literature. Injury. 2019;50(12):2167-2175.
  24. Walcher F, Weinlich M, Conrad G, et al. Prehospital ultrasound imaging improves management of abdominal trauma. J Br Surg. 2006;93(2):238-242.
  25. Shackelford SA, Del Junco DJ, Powell-Dunford N, et al. Association of prehospital blood product transfusion during medical evacuation of combat casualties in Afghanistan with acute and 30-day survival. JAMA. 2017;318(16):1581-1591.
  26. Gurney JM, Staudt AM, Del Junco DJ, et al. Whole blood at the tip of the spear: a retrospective cohort analysis of warm fresh whole blood resuscitation versus component therapy in severely injured combat casualties. Surgery. 2022;171(2):518-525.
  27. Spinella PC, Perkins JG, Grathwohl KW, Beekley AC, Holcomb JB. Warm fresh whole blood is independently associated with improved survival for patients with combat-related traumatic injuries. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2009;66(4):S69-S76.
  28. Yazer MH, Jackson B, Sperry JL, Alarcon L, Triulzi DJ, Murdock AD. Initial safety and feasibility of cold-stored uncrossmatched whole blood transfusion in civilian trauma patients. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2016;81(1):21-26.
  29. Braverman MA, Smith A, Pokorny D, et al. Prehospital whole blood reduces early mortality in patients with hemorrhagic shock. Transfusion (Paris). 2021;61:S15-S21.
  30. Sperry JL, Guyette FX, Brown JB, et al. Prehospital plasma during air medical transport in trauma patients at risk for hemorrhagic shock. N Engl J Med. 2018;379(4):315-326.
  31. Moore HB, Moore EE, Chapman MP, et al. Plasma-first resuscitation to treat haemorrhagic shock during emergency ground transportation in an urban area: a randomised trial. The Lancet. 2018;392(10144):283-291.
  32. Crombie N, Doughty HA, Bishop JR, et al. Resuscitation with blood products in patients with trauma-related haemorrhagic shock receiving prehospital care (RePHILL): a multicentre, open-label, randomised, controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet Haematol. 2022;9(4):e250-e261.
  33. Hashmi ZG, Jansen JO, Kerby JD, Holcomb JB. Nationwide estimates of the need for prehospital blood products after injury. Transfusion (Paris). 2022;62:S203-S210.
  34. Pokorny DM, Braverman MA, Edmundson PM, et al. The use of prehospital blood products in the resuscitation of trauma patients: a review of prehospital transfusion practices and a description of our regional whole blood program in San Antonio, TX. ISBT Sci Ser. 2019;14(3):332-342.
  35. Zielinski MD, Stubbs JR, Berns KS, et al. Prehospital blood transfusion programs: capabilities and lessons learned. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2017;82(6S):S70-S78.
  36. Holcomb JB, Tilley BC, Baraniuk S, et al. Transfusion of plasma, platelets, and red blood cells in a 1:1:1 vs a 1:1:2 ratio and mortality in patients with severe trauma: the PROPPR Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2015;313(5):471-482.
  37. Holcomb JB, Del Junco DJ, Fox EE, et al. The prospective, observational, multicenter, major trauma transfusion (PROMMTT) study: comparative effectiveness of a time-varying treatment with competing risks. JAMA Surg. 2013;148(2):127-136.
  38. Guyette FX, Sperry JL, Peitzman AB, et al. Prehospital blood product and crystalloid resuscitation in the severely injured patient: a secondary analysis of the prehospital air medical plasma trial. Ann Surg. 2021;273(2):358-364.
  39. Holcomb JB, Jenkins D, Rhee P, et al. Damage control resuscitation: directly addressing the early coagulopathy of trauma. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2007;62(2):307-310.
  40. Tran A, Yates J, Lau A, Lampron J, Matar M. Permissive hypotension versus conventional resuscitation strategies in adult trauma patients with hemorrhagic shock: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2018;84(5):802-808.
  41. Owattanapanich N, Chittawatanarat K, Benyakorn T, Sirikun J. Risks and benefits of hypotensive resuscitation in patients with traumatic hemorrhagic shock: a meta-analysis. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med. 2018;26(1):1-10.
  42. Cannon WB, Fraser J. The preventive treatment of wound shock. In: 50 Landmark Papers every Trauma Surgeon Should Know. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2019:19-24.
  43. Kudo D, Yoshida Y, Kushimoto S. Permissive hypotension/hypotensive resuscitation and restricted/controlled resuscitation in patients with severe trauma. J Intensive Care. 2017;5(1):1-8.
  44. Shires T, Coln D, Carrico J, Lightfoot S. Fluid therapy in hemorrhagic shock. Arch Surg. 1964;88(4):688-693.
  45. Bickell WH, Wall Jr MJ, Pepe PE, et al. Immediate versus delayed fluid resuscitation for hypotensive patients with penetrating torso injuries. N Engl J Med. 1994;331(17):1105-1109.
  46. Dutton RP, Mackenzie CF, Scalea TM. Hypotensive resuscitation during active hemorrhage: impact on in-hospital mortality. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2002;52(6):1141-1146.
  47. Morrison CA, Carrick MM, Norman MA, et al. Hypotensive resuscitation strategy reduces transfusion requirements and severe postoperative coagulopathy in trauma patients with hemorrhagic shock: preliminary results of a randomized controlled trial. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2011;70(3):652-663.
  48. Turner J, Nicholl J, Webber L, Cox H, Dixon S, Yates D. A randomised controlled trial of prehospital intravenous fluid replacement therapy in serious trauma. Health Technol Assess Winch Engl. 2000;4(31):1-57.
  49. Wang CH, Hsieh WH, Chou HC, et al. Liberal versus restricted fluid resuscitation strategies in trauma patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials and observational studies. Crit Care Med. 2014;42(4):954-961.
  50. Henry S. ATLS 10th edition offers new insights into managing trauma patients. Bull Am Coll Surg. Chicago: American College of Surgeons; 2018.
  51. Cap AP, Pidcoke HF, Spinella P, et al. Damage control resuscitation. Mil Med. 2018;183(suppl 2):36-43.
  52. Rossaint R, Bouillon B, Cerny V, et al. The European guideline on management of major bleeding and coagulopathy following trauma. Crit Care. 2016;20(1):1-55.
  53. Blackbourne LH. Combat damage control surgery. Crit Care Med. 2008;36(7):S304-S310.
  54. Cannon JW, Khan MA, Raja AS, et al. Damage control resuscitation in patients with severe traumatic hemorrhage: a practice management guideline from the Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2017;82(3):605-617.
  55. Jansen JO, Thomas R, Loudon MA, Brooks A. Damage control resuscitation for patients with major trauma. BMJ. 2009;338:1778.
  56. Cole E, Weaver A, Gall L, et al. A decade of damage control resuscitation: new transfusion practice, new survivors, new directions. Ann Surg. 2021;273(6):1215-1220.
  57. Chesnut RM, Marshall LF, Klauber MR, et al. The role of secondary brain injury in determining outcome from severe head injury. J Trauma. 1993;34(2):216-222.
  58. Ghajar J. Traumatic brain injury. Lancet. 2000;356(9233):923-929.
  59. Greve MW, Zink BJ. Pathophysiology of traumatic brain injury. Mt Sinai J Med J Transl Pers Med J Transl Pers Med. 2009;76(2):97-104.
  60. Badjatia N, Carney N, Crocco TJ, et al. Guidelines for prehospital management of traumatic brain injury. 2nd edition. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2008;12(suppl 1):S1-52.
  61. Procaccio F, Stocchetti N, Citerio G, Berardino M. Guidelines for the treatment of adults with severe head trauma (part I): initial assessment; evaluation and pre-hospital treatment. Current criteria for hospital. J Neurosurg Sci. 2000;44(1):1.
  62. Manley G, Knudson MM, Morabito D, Damron S, Erickson V, Pitts L. Hypotension, hypoxia, and head injury: frequency, duration, and consequences. Arch Surg. 2001;136(10):1118-1123.
  63. Lambden S, Creagh-Brown BC, Hunt J, Summers C, Forni LG. Definitions and pathophysiology of vasoplegic shock. Crit Care. 2018;22(1):1-8.
  64. Silversides JA, Perner A, Malbrain ML. Liberal versus restrictive fluid therapy in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med. 2019;45:1440-2.
  65. Dave S, Dahlstrom JJ, Weisbrod LJ. Neurogenic Shock. In: StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing, Treasure Island (FL); 2023. PMID: 29083597.
  66. Annane D, Bellissant E, Cavaillon JM. Septic shock. Lancet. 2005;365(9453):63-78.
  67. Morpurgo E, Galandiuk S. Fournier’s gangrene. Surg Clin. 2002;82(6):1213-1224.
  68. Hawryluk G, Whetstone W, Saigal R, et al. Mean arterial blood pressure correlates with neurological recovery after human spinal cord injury: analysis of high frequency physiologic data. J Neurotrauma. 2015;32(24):1958-1967.
  69. Martin ND, Kepler C, Zubair M, Sayadipour A, Cohen M, Weinstein M. Increased mean arterial pressure goals after spinal cord injury and functional outcome. J Emerg Trauma Shock. 2015;8(2):94.
  70. Saadeh YS, Smith BW, Joseph JR, et al. The impact of blood pressure management after spinal cord injury: a systematic review of the literature. Neurosurg Focus. 2017;43(5):E20.
  71. Evans L, Rhodes A, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock 2021. Intensive Care Med. 2021;47(11):1181-1247.
  72. Hollenberg SM, Kavinsky CJ, Parrillo JE. Cardiogenic shock. Ann Intern Med. 1999;131(1):47-59.
  73. Amin HZ, Amin LZ, Pradipta A. Takotsubo cardiomyopathy: a brief review. J Med Life. 2020;13(1):3.
  74. Akashi YJ, Goldstein DS, Barbaro G, Ueyama T. Takotsubo cardiomyopathy: a new form of acute, reversible heart failure. Circulation. 2008;118(25):2754-2762.
  75. Bulger N, Harrington B, Krieger J, et al. Prehospital end-tidal carbon dioxide predicts hemorrhagic shock upon emergency department arrival. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2021;91(3):457-464.
  76. Childress K, Arnold K, Hunter C, Ralls G, Papa L, Silvestri S. Prehospital end-tidal carbon dioxide predicts mortality in trauma patients. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2018;22(2):170-174.
  77. Murphy RA, Bobrow BJ, Spaite DW, Hu C, McDannold R, Vadeboncoeur TF. Association between prehospital CPR quality and end-tidal carbon dioxide levels in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2016;20(3):369-377.
  78. Wilson BR, Bruno J, Duckwitz M, Akers N, Jeanmonod D, Jeanmonod R. Prehospital end-tidal CO2 as an early marker for transfusion requirement in trauma patients. Am J Emerg Med. 2021;45:254-257.
  79. Kauvar DS, Dubick MA, Walters TJ, Kragh Jr JF. Systematic review of prehospital tourniquet use in civilian limb trauma. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2018;84(5):819-825.
  80. Duchesne J, Taghavi S, Houghton A, et al. Prehospital mortality due to hemorrhagic shock remains high and unchanged: a summary of current civilian EMS practices and new military changes. Shock. 2021;56(1):3-8.
  81. Howard JT, Kotwal RS, Stern CA, et al. Use of combat casualty care data to assess the US military trauma system during the Afghanistan and Iraq conflicts, 2001-2017. JAMA Surg. 2019;154(7):600-608.
  82. Bennett BL, Littlejohn LF, Kheirabadi BS, et al. Management of external hemorrhage in tactical combat casualty care: chitosan-based hemostatic gauze dressings. TCCC guidelines change 13-05. Army Institute of Surgical Research, Fort Sam Houston TX; 2014.
  83. Hu Z, Zhang DY, Lu ST, Li PW, Li SD. Chitosan-based composite materials for prospective hemostatic applications. Mar Drugs. 2018;16(8):273.
  84. Song KH, Winebrenner HM, Able TE, Bowen CB, Dunn NA, Shevchik JD. Ranger O Low Titer (ROLO): Whole Blood Transfusion for Forward Deployed Units. Mil Med. 2021. 
  85. Fisher AD, Miles EA, Broussard MA, Corley JB, Knight R, Remley MA, et al. Low titer group O whole blood resuscitation: military experience from the point of injury. J Trauma Acute Care Surg
    . 2020;89(4):834–41. 
  86. Vanderspurt CK, Spinella PC, Cap AP, Hill R, Matthews SA, Corley JB, et al. The use of whole blood in US military operations in Iraq, Syria, and Afghanistan since the introduction of low-titer Type O whole blood: feasibility, acceptability, challenges. Transfusion (Paris). 2019;59(3):965–70. 
  87. Naumann DN, Boulton AJ, Sandhu A, Campbell K, Charlton W, Gurney JM, et al. Fresh whole blood from walking blood banks for patients with traumatic hemorrhagic shock: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Trauma Acute Care Surg
    . 2020;89(4):792–800. 
  88. Morrison JJ, Dubose JJ, Rasmussen TE, Midwinter MJ. Military application of tranexamic acid in trauma emergency resuscitation (MATTERs) study. Arch Surg. 2012;147(2):113-119.
  89. Shakur H, Roberts I. Effects of tranexamic acid on death, vascular occlusive events, and blood transfusion in trauma patients with significant hemorrhage (CRASH-2): a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. In: 50 Landmark Papers every Trauma Surgeon Should Know. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2019:31-34.
  90. Almuwallad A, Cole E, Ross J, Perkins Z, Davenport R. The impact of prehospital TXA on mortality among bleeding trauma patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2021;90(5):901-907.
  91. Eckert MJ, Wertin TM, Tyner SD, Nelson DW, Izenberg S, Martin MJ. Tranexamic acid administration to pediatric trauma patients in a combat setting: the pediatric trauma and tranexamic acid study (PED-TRAX). J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2014;77(6):852-858.
  92. Manoukian MA, Tancredi DJ, Nishijima DK. Effect of age on the efficacy of tranexamic acid: an analysis of heterogeneity of treatment effect within the CRASH-2 dataset. Am J Emerg Med. 2022;53:37-40.
  93. Weng S, Wang W, Wei Q, Lan H, Su J, Xu Y. Effect of tranexamic acid in patients with traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. World Neurosurg. 2019;123:128-135.
  94. Morte D, Lammers D, Bingham J, Kuckelman J, Eckert M, Martin M. Tranexamic acid administration following head trauma in a combat setting: does tranexamic acid result in improved neurologic outcomes? J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2019;87(1):125-129.
  95. Chreiman KM, Dumas RP, Seamon MJ, et al. The IOs have it: a prospective observational study of vascular access success rates in patients in extremis using video review. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2018;84(4):558.
  96. Dumas RP, Vella MA, Maiga AW, Erickson CR, Dennis BM, da Luz LT, et al. Moving the needle on time to resuscitation: an EAST prospective multicenter study of vascular access in hypotensive injured patients using trauma video review. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2023;10:1097.
  97. Chan CN, Kadir B, Ahmed Z. The Role of prehospital REBOA for hemorrhage control in civilian and military austere settings: a systematic review. Trauma Care. 2022;2(1):63-78.
  98. Henry R, Matsushima K, Henry RN, et al. Who would have benefited from the prehospital use of resuscitative endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta (REBOA)? An autopsy study. J Am Coll Surg. 2019;229(4):383-388.
  99. Glaser J, Stigall K, Jensen CS, Morrison U, Snyder S, Russo MR. Resuscitative endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta (REBOA) for hemorrhagic shock (CPG ID: 38). Jt Trauma Syst Clin Pract Guidelines. 2020;1-28.
  100. Brenner M, Bulger EM, Perina DG, et al. Joint statement from the American College of Surgeons Committee on Trauma (ACS COT) and the American College of Emergency Physicians (ACEP) regarding the clinical use of Resuscitative Endovascular Balloon Occlusion of the Aorta (REBOA). Trauma Surg Acute Care Open. 2018;3(1):e000154.
  101. DuBose JJ. How I do it: partial resuscitative endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta (P-REBOA). J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2017;83(1):197-199.
  102. Madurska MJ, McLenithan A, Scalea TM, et al. A feasibility study of partial REBOA data in a high-volume trauma center. Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg. 2021;1-7.
  103. Kuckelman J, Derickson M, Barron M, et al. Efficacy of intermittent versus standard resuscitative endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta in a lethal solid organ injury model. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2019;87(1):9-17.
  104. Kuckelman JP, Barron M, Moe D, et al. Extending the golden hour for zone 1 resuscitative endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta: improved survival and reperfusion injury with intermittent versus continuous resuscitative endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta in a porcine severe truncal hemorrhage model. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2018;85(2):318-326.
  105. Forte DM, Do WS, Weiss JB, et al. Titrate to equilibrate and not exsanguinate! Characterization and validation of a novel partial resuscitative endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta catheter in normal and hemorrhagic shock conditions. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2019;87(5):1015-1025.
  106. Joint Trauma System, TCCC Guidelines 2024, ccc.org.ua/en/guide/tccc-guidelines-2021-eng, Last Accessed May 14, 2024

4 — Airway and Ventilation Management

  1. Hung, O, Murphy M. “Context-Sensitive Airway Management.” Anesthesia and analgesia 110.4 (2010): 982–983.
  2. Davis DP et al The impact of prehospital endotracheal intubation on outcome in moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. J Trauma 2005 58(5):933–939
  3. Carney NC, Totten AM, Cheney T, et al: Prehospital Airway Management: A Systematic Review, Prehospital Emergency Care. 2022. 26:716-727
  4. Jaber S, De Jong A, et al. Preoxygenation with standard facemask combining apneic oxygenation using high flow nasal cannula versus standard facemask alone in patients with and without obesity: the OPTIMASK international study. Ann Intensive Care. 2023 Apr 4;13(1):26. doi: 10.1186/s13613-023-01124-x. PMID: 37014462; PMCID: PMC10073359.
  5. Root CW, Mitchell OJL, Brown R, Evers CB, Boyle J, Griffin C, West FM, Gomm E, Miles E, McGuire B, Swaminathan A, St George J, Horowitz JM, DuCanto J. Suction Assisted Laryngoscopy and Airway Decontamination (SALAD): A technique for improved emergency airway management. Resusc Plus. 2020 May 21;1-2:100005. doi: 10.1016/j.resplu.2020.100005. PMID: 34223292; PMCID: PMC8244406.
  6. Brown, CA., Sakles JC, Mick, NW eds. The Walls Manual of Emergency Airway Management. Fifth edition. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer, 2018.
  7. Brown C, Walls R, Identification of the Difficult and Failed Airway The Walls Manual of Emergency Airway Management. Fifth edition. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer, 2018. Fifth edition. pp 28-45 Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer, 2018.
  8. Widmeier, K , Prehospital Management of Difficult Airways, JEMS, https://www.jems.com › patient-care › airway-respiratory , May 2016, Last accessed Oct 4 2024

5 — Traumatic Cardiac Arrest Management

  1. Zwingmann J, Mehlhorn AT, Hammer T, Bayer J, Südkamp NP, Strohm PC. Survival and neurologic outcome after traumatic out-of-hospital cardiopulmonary arrest in a pediatric and adult population: a systematic review. Crit Care. 2012;16(4):R117.
  2. Jenkins DH, Cioffi WG, Cocanour CS, et al; Coalition for National Trauma Research (CNTR). Position statement of the Coalition for National Trauma Research on the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine Report. A national trauma care system: integrating military and civilian trauma systems to achieve zero preventable deaths after injury. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2016;81(5):816-818.
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6 — Mass Casualty Incidents

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7 — Traumatic Brain Injury

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  113. Alvi A, Doherty T, Lewen G: Facial fractures and concomitant injuries in trauma patients. Laryngoscope. 2003;113:102-106.
  114. You N, Choi MS, Roh TH, Jeong D, Kim SH. Severe facial fracture is related to severe traumatic brain injury. World Neurosurg. 2018;111:e47-e52.
  115. Zhou HH. Ocular trauma in patients with maxillofacial fractures. J Craniofac Surg. 2014;25(2):519-523.
  116. Goelz L. Retrospective cohort study of frequency and patterns of orbital injuries on whole-body CT with maxillofacial multi-slice CT. Tomography. 2021;7(3):373-386.
  117. Gaither JB, Spaite DW, Bobrow BJ, et al. EMS treatment guidelines in major traumatic brain injury with positive pressure ventilation. JAMA Surg. 2024;159(4):363-372.

8 — Spinal Column and Spinal Cord Trauma

  1. Bickenbach J, et al, eds. International Perspectives on Spinal Cord Injury. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2013.
  2. Hoffman JR, et al; for the National Emergency X-Radiography Utilization Study Group (NEXUS). Validity of a set of clinical criteria to rule out injury to the cervical spine in patients with blunt trauma. N Engl J Med. 2000;343:94-99.
  3. Stiell IG, et al. The Canadian C-spine rule for radiography in alert and stable trauma patients. JAMA. 2001;286(15):1841-1848.
  4. The American College of Surgeons (ACS). Best practices guidelines: spinal injury. Trauma Quality Programs. March 2022
  5. Maschumann C, et al. new clinical guidelines on the spinal stabilisation of adult trauma patients: consensus and evidence based. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg. 2019;27:77.
  6. The American College of Surgeons Committee on Trauma (ACS-COT), American College of Emergency Physicians (ACEP), National Association of EMS Physicians (NAEMSP). Spinal motion restriction in the trauma patient: a joint position statement. May 23, 2018.
  7. Kornhall DK, et al. The Norwegian guidelines for the prehospital management of adult trauma patients with potential spinal injury. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg. 2017;25:2.
  8. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Spinal injury: assessment and initial management. Nice Guideline No. 41. London, UK: NICE. February 17, 2016.
  9. Moss R, et al. Minimal patient handling: faculty of pre-hospital patient care consensus statement. Emerg Med J. 2013;30:1065-1066.
  10. Connor D, et al. Pre-hospital spinal immobilisation: an initial consensus statement. Faculty of Prehospital Care, The Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh. Emerg Med J. 2013;30:1067-1069.
  11. Mills BM, Conrick KM, Anderson S, et al. Consensus recommendations on the prehospital care of the injured athlete with a suspected catastrophic cervical spine injury. J Athl Train. 2020;55(6):563-572. https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-0434.19

9 — Thoracic Trauma (Chest Injury)

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  2. ATLS Subcommittee; American College of Surgeons’ Committee on Trauma. Advanced Trauma Life Support: Student Course Manual. 10th edition. American College of Surgeons; 2018.
  3. ATLS Subcommittee; American College of Surgeons’ Committee on Trauma. Tactical combat casualty care (TCCC) guidelines for medical personnel. J Spec Oper Med. 2022;22(1):11. doi:10.55460/ETZI-SI9T
  4. Clements TW, Sirois M, Parry N, et al. OPTICC: a multicentre trial of occult pneumothoraces subjected to mechanical ventilation: the final report. Am J Surg. 2021;221(6):1252-1258. doi:10.1016/j.amjsurg.2021.02.012
  5. Dave SB, Shriki J. The Big Five: lifesaving procedures in the trauma bay. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2023;41(1):161-182. doi:10.1016/j.emc.2022.09.009
  6. De La Hoz Polo M, Sandhu A, Kashef E, et al. Medical and surgical devices in the emergency and trauma patient: what the radiologist should know, and how they can add value. Br J Radiol. 2021;94(1119):20200530. doi:10.1259/bjr.20200530
  7. Edwards JG, Clarke P, Pieracci FM, et al. Taxonomy of multiple rib fractures: results of the chest wall injury society international consensus survey. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2020;88(2):e40-e45. doi:10.1097/TA.0000000000002282
  8. Eken C, Yıgıt O. Traumatic asphyxia: a rare syndrome in trauma patients. Int J Emerg Med. 2009;2(4):255-256. doi:10.1007/s12245-009-0115-x
  9. El Zahran T, El Sayed M. Prehospital ultrasound in trauma: a review of current and potential future clinical applications. J Emerg Trauma Shock. 2018;11(1):4. doi:10.4103/JETS.JETS_117_17
  10. Feliciano DV, Mattox KL, Moore EE, eds. Trauma. 9th edition. McGraw-Hill; 2021.
  11. Galvagno SM, Smith CE, Varon AJ, et al. Pain management for blunt thoracic trauma: a joint practice management guideline from the Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma and Trauma Anesthesiology Society. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2016;81(5):936-951. doi:10.1097/TA.0000000000001209
  12. Gray EJ, Cranford JA, Betcher JA, et al. Sonogram of safety: ultrasound outperforms the fifth intercostal space landmark for tube thoracostomy site selection. J Clin Ultrasound. 2020;48(6):303-306. doi:10.1002/jcu.22851
  13. Henry R, Ghafil C, Golden A, et al. Prehospital needle decompression improves clinical outcomes in helicopter evacuation patients with multisystem trauma: a multicenter study. J Spec Oper Med. 2021;21(1):49. doi:10.55460/XDCK-IY9J
  14. Hoggarth A, Grist M, Board B, Murch T. Development of a new vented chest seal dressing for treatment of open pneumothorax. J Spec Oper Med. 2020;20(3):159. doi:10.55460/28BO-67AK
  15. Inaba K, Branco BC, Eckstein M, et al. Optimal positioning for emergent needle thoracostomy: a cadaver-based study. J Trauma. 2011;71(5):1099-1103.
  16. Jodie P, Kerstin H. BET 2: Pre-hospital finger thoracostomy in patients with chest trauma. Emerg Med J. 2017;34(6):419. doi:10.1136/emermed-2017-206808.2
  17. Kong VY, Liu M, Sartorius B, Clarke DL. Open pneumothorax: the spectrum and outcome of management based on Advanced Trauma Life Support recommendations. Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg. 2015;41(4):401-404. doi:10.1007/s00068-014-0469-5
  18. Koyfman A, Long B, eds. The Emergency Medicine Trauma Handbook. Cambridge University Press; 2019. doi:10.1017/9781108647397
  19. Kuhlwilm V. The use of chest seals in treating sucking chest wounds: a comparison of existing evidence and guideline recommendations. J Spec Oper Med. 2021;21(1):94. doi:10.55460/3G6H-14FD
  20. Kulvatunyou N, Erickson L, Vijayasekaran A, et al. Randomized clinical trial of pigtail catheter versus chest tube in injured patients with uncomplicated traumatic pneumothorax. Br J Surg. 2014;101(2):17-22. doi:10.1002/bjs.9377
  21. Leech C, Porter K, Steyn R, et al. The pre-hospital management of life-threatening chest injuries: a consensus statement from the Faculty of Pre-Hospital Care, Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh. Trauma. 2017;19(1):54-62. doi:10.1177/1460408616664553
  22. Littlejohn LF. Treatment of thoracic trauma: lessons from the battlefield adapted to all austere environments. Wilderness Environ Med. 2017;28(2):S69-S73. doi:10.1016/j.wem.2017.01.031
  23. Lodhia JV, Eyre L, Smith M, Toth L, Troxler M, Milton RS. Management of thoracic trauma. Anaesthesia. 2023;78(2):225-235. doi:10.1111/anae.15934
  24. McCann B. Tension viscerothorax: an important differential for tension pneumothorax. Emerg Med J. 2005;22(3):220-221. doi:10.1136/emj.2003.008367
  25. Menegozzo CAM, Artifon ELA, Meyer-Pflug AR, Rocha MC, Utiyama EM. Can ultrasound be used as an adjunct for tube thoracostomy? A systematic review of potential application to reduce procedure-related complications. Int J Surg. 2019;68:85-90. doi:10.1016/j.ijsu.2019.06.012
  26. Menegozzo CAM, Utiyama EM. Steering the wheel towards the standard of care: proposal of a step-by-step ultrasound-guided emergency chest tube drainage and literature review. Int J Surg. 2018;56:315-319. doi:10.1016/j.ijsu.2018.07.002
  27. Mohrsen S, McMahon N, Corfield A, McKee S. Complications associated with pre-hospital open thoracostomies: a rapid review. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med. 2021;29(1):166. doi:10.1186/s13049-021-00976-1
  28. Molnar TF. Thoracic trauma: which chest tube when and where? Thorac Surg Clin. 2017;27(1):13-23. doi:10.1016/j.thorsurg.2016.08.003
  29. Montgomery HR, Drew B, Butler FK. Summary of recent changes to the TCCC guidelines. J Spec Oper Med. 2021;21(2):120. doi:10.55460/NX8I-0AUH
  30. Mouawad NJ, Paulisin J, Hofmeister S, Thomas MB. Blunt thoracic aortic injury: concepts and management. J Cardiothorac Surg. 2020;15(1):62. doi:10.1186/s13019-020-01101-6
  31. de Moya M, Brasel KJ, Brown CVR, et al. Evaluation and management of traumatic pneumothorax: a Western Trauma Association critical decisions algorithm. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2022;92(1):103-107. doi:10.1097/TA.0000000000003411
  32. Paquette R, Quinene M, Blackbourne LH, Allen PB. Efficacy of commercial chest seal adherence and tension pneumothorax prevention: a systematic review of quantitative studies. J Spec Oper Med. 2021;21(3):78. doi:10.55460/FZ33-7RLL
  33. Peitzman AB, Yealy DM, Fabian TC, et al., eds. The Trauma Manual: Trauma and Acute Care Surgery. 5th edition. Wolters Kluwer; 2020.
  34. Prendes CF, Stana J, Schneidwind KD, et al. Blunt traumatic thoracic aortic injuries: a retrospective cohort analysis of 2 decades of experience. Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg. 2021;33(2):293-300. doi:10.1093/icvts/ivab067
  35. Roberts DJ, Leigh-Smith S, Faris PD, et al. Clinical manifestations of tension pneumothorax: protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis. Syst Rev. 2014;3(1):3. doi:10.1186/2046-4053-3-3
  36. Roberts JR, Custalow CB, Thomsen TW, eds. Roberts and Hedges’ Clinical Procedures in Emergency Medicine and Acute Care. 7th edition. Elsevier; 2019.
  37. Robitaille-Fortin M, Norman S, Archer T, Mercier E. Prehospital decompression of pneumothorax: a systematic review of recent evidence. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2021;36(4):450-459. doi:10.1017/S1049023X21000509
  38. Rossaint R, Afshari A, Bouillon B, et al. The European guideline on management of major bleeding and coagulopathy following trauma: sixth edition. Crit Care. 2023;27(1):80. doi:10.1186/s13054-023-04327-7
  39. Schellenberg M, Inaba K. Critical decisions in the management of thoracic trauma. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2018;36(1):135-147. doi:10.1016/j.emc.2017.08.008
  40. Scott TE, Kirkman E, Haque M, Gibb IE, Mahoney P, Hardman JG. Primary blast lung injury: a review. Br J Anaesthesia. 2017;118(3):311-316. doi:10.1093/bja/aew385
  41. Sharrock K, Shannon B, Garcia Gonzalez C, et al. Prehospital paramedic pleural decompression: a systematic review. Injury. 2021;52(10):2778-2786. doi:10.1016/j.injury.2021.08.008
  42. Singh V, Dwivedi SK, Chandra S, et al. Optimal fluid amount for haemodynamic benefit in cardiac tamponade. Eur Heart J. 2014;3(2):158-164. doi:10.1177/2048872613516017
  43. Spiegl UJA, Schnake KJ, Hartmann F, et al. Traumatic fractures of the thoracic spine: narrative literature review. Z Orthop Unfall. 2021;159(04):373-382. doi:10.1055/a-1144-3846
  44. Sziklavari Z, Molnar TF. Blast injuries to the thorax. J Thorac Dis. 2019;11(S2):S167-S171. doi:10.21037/jtd.2018.11.106
  45. Tran J, Haussner W, Shah K. Traumatic pneumothorax: a review of current diagnostic practices and evolving management. J Emerg Med. 2021;61(5):517-528. doi:10.1016/j.jemermed.2021.07.006
  46. Van Lieshout EMM, Verhofstad MHJ, Van Silfhout DJT, Dubois EA. Diagnostic approach for myocardial contusion: a retrospective evaluation of patient data and review of the literature. Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg. 2021;47(4):1259-1272. doi:10.1007/s00068-020-01305-4
  47. Wax DB, Leibowitz AB. Radiologic assessment of potential sites for needle decompression of a tension pneumothorax. Anesth Analg. 2007;105(5):1385-1388. doi:10.1213/01.ane.0000282827.86345.ff
  48. Wernick B, Hon HH, Mubang RN, et al. Complications of needle thoracostomy: a comprehensive clinical review. Int J Crit Illn Inj Sci. 2015;5(3):160-169. doi:10.4103/2229-5151.164939

10 — Abdominal and Pelvic Trauma

  1. American College of Surgeons, Committee on Trauma. ATLS, Advanced Trauma Life Support: Student Course Manual. 10th edition. Chicago: American College of Surgeons, 2018.
  2. Bell Kameron T, et al. Evaluation of tranexamic acid and calcium chloride in major traumas in a prehospital setting: a narrative review. Shock. 2023;60:325-332.
  3. Mercer CB, et al. Ultrasound use in the prehospital setting for trauma: a systematic review. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2020;25:566-582.
  4. Napoletano A, et al. The application of pelvic binders in the pre-hospital setting for people with suspected pelvic fracture: a systematic review. PREPRINT (Version 1) available at Research Square (2023). <https://www.researchsquare.com/article/rs-2986162/v1>
  5. Newgard CD, et al. Out-of-hospital circulatory measures to identify patients with serious injury: a systematic review. Acad Emerg Med. 2020;27:1323-1339.
  6. Robidoux M, et al. EMS Pre-Hospital Ultrasound. Accessed August 18, 2020. <https://www.acep.org/sonoguide/advanced/ems>.
  7. van Turenhout EC, et al. Pre-hospital transfusion of red blood cells. Part 1: A scoping review of current practice and transfusion triggers. Transfus Med. 2020;30:86-105.
  8. van Turenhout EC, et al. Pre-hospital transfusion of red blood cells. Part 2: A systematic review of treatment effects on outcomes.” Transfus Med 2020;30:106-133.

11 — Extremity Trauma

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  2. Ghafouri HB, et al. Is 1% povidone-iodine solution superior to normal saline for simple traumatic wound irrigation?” Wound Med. 2016;15:1-5.
  3. Mayersak RJ. Initial evaluation and management of orthopedic injuries.” In: Tintinalli JE, ed. Tintinalli’s Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide. New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 2020. Accessed June 1, 2023.
  4. Tennyson J, Weisberg SN, Quale M. Extremity injury. In: Cooney D, ed. EMS Medicine. New York: McGraw-Hill Education; 2016:398-407.
  5. Chim H, et al. Challenges in replantation of complex amputations. Semin Plast Surg. 2013;27:182-189.
  6. Sims JI, Chau MT, Davies JR. Diagnostic accuracy of the Ottawa Knee Rule in adult acute knee injuries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Radiol. 2020;30:4438-4446.
  7. Gomes YE, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of the Ottawa Ankle Rule to exclude fractures in acute ankle injuries in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis.” BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders. 2022;23:1-11.
  8. Jagodzinski NA, Weerasinghe C, Porter K. Crush injuries and crush syndrome: a review. Part 1: The systemic injury. Trauma 2010;12:69-88.
  9. Long B, Liang SY, Gottlieb M. Crush injury and syndrome: a review for emergency clinicians. Am J Emerg Med. 2023;69:180-187.
  10. Lee C, Porter KM. Prehospital management of lower limb fractures. Emerg Med J. 2005;22:660-663.
  11. Klimke A, Furin M, Overberger R. Prehospital immobilization. In: Roberts J, ed. Roberts and Hedges’ Clinical Procedures in Emergency Medicine and Acute Care. 7th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2019:917-946.
  12. Mercer MP. Orthopedic injuries. In: Cone D, ed. Emergency Medical Services : Clinical Practice and Systems Oversight. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 2021:307-315.
  13. Mulvey JM, Carson IN, Palmer KA. Closed reduction of anterior shoulder dislocations performed by ski patrollers in the Alpine prehospital environment: a retrospective review demonstrating efficacy in a Canadian ski resort. Wilderness Environ Med 2021;32:441-449.
  14. Mercer CB, et al. Ultrasound use in the prehospital setting for trauma: a systematic review.” Prehosp Emerg Care. 2021;25:566-582.
  15. Fennelly JT, et al. A systematic review of pre-hospital shoulder reduction techniques for anterior shoulder dislocation and the effect on patient return to function.” Chin J Traumatol. 2020;23:295-301.
  16. Siebenbürger G, et al. Medical speciality, medication or skills: key factors of prehospital joint reduction. a prospective, multicenter cohort study. Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg. 2018;44:637-642.
  17. Lord S, et al. Implementation of a prehospital patella dislocation reduction protocol. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2020;4:800-803.
  18. Campagne D, et al. Prehospital traction splint use in midthigh trauma patients. J Emerg Trauma Shock. 2020;13:296.
  19. Wood SP, Vrahas M, Wedel SK. Femur fracture immobilization with traction splints in multisystem trauma patients. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2003;7:241-243.
  20. Lyng J, et al. Recommended essential equipment for basic life support and advanced life support ground ambulances 2020: a joint position statement. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2021;25:451-459.
  21. Philipsen SPJ, Vergunst AA, Tan ECTH. Traction splinting for midshaft femoral fractures in the pre-hospital and emergency department environment: a systematic review. Injury. 2022;53:4129-4138.
  22. Davis DD, et al. EMS Traction Splint. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing, 2018.
  23. White LJ, et al. Prehospital use of analgesia for suspected extremity fractures. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2000;4:205-208.
  24. Werner SL. Few emergency medical services patients with lower extremity fractures receive prehospital analgesia. Ann Emerg Med. 2005;46:389-390.
  25. Hennes H, Kim MK, Pirrallo RG. Prehospital pain management: the comparison of providers’ perceptions and practices. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2005;9:32-39.
  26. Lindbeck G, et al. Evidence-based guidelines for prehospital pain management: recommendations. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2023;27:144-153.
  27. Browne LR, et al. Multicenter evaluation of prehospital opioid pain management in injured children. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2016;20:759-767.
  28. Dunwoody CJ, et al. Assessment, physiological monitoring, and consequences of inadequately treated acute pain. Pain Management Nursing. 2008;9:11-21.
  29. Kamin RA, Cicero MX. Analgesia. In: Cone D, ed. Emergency Medical Services: Clinical Practice and Systems Oversight. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 2021:553-558.
  30. Thong ISK, et al. The validity of pain intensity measures: what do the NRS, VAS, VRS, and FPS-R Measure? Scand J Pain. 2018;18:99-107.
  31. Karcioglu O, et al. A systematic review of the pain scales in adults: which to use? Am J Emerg Med. 2018;36:707-714.
  32. Garra G, et al. Validation of the Wong‐Baker faces pain rating scale in pediatric emergency department patients. Acad Emerg Med. 2010;17:50-54.
  33. Crellin DJ, et al. The psychometric properties of the FLACC scale used to assess procedural pain. J Pain. 2018;19:862-872.
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  35. Beaudoin FL, et al. Low‐dose ketamine improves pain relief in patients receiving intravenous opioids for acute pain in the emergency department: results of a randomized, double‐blind, clinical trial. Acad Emerg Med. 2014;21:1193-1202.
  36. Gessner DM, Horn J-L, Lowenberg DW. Pain management in the orthopaedic trauma patient: non-opioid solutions. Injury. 2020;51(suppl):S28-S36.
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  38. Rech MA, et al. Acute pain management in the emergency department: use of multimodal and non-opioid analgesic treatment strategies. Am J Emerg Med. 2022;58:57-65.
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  45. Weber CD, et al. Traumatic hip dislocations in major trauma patients: epidemiology, injury mechanisms, and concomitant injuries. J Clin Med. 2022;11:472.
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12 — Burns

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  5. Peck MD. Epidemiology of burns throughout the World. Part II: intentional burns in adults. Burns. 2012;38(5):630-637. doi:10.1016/j.burns.2011.12.028
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  7. Kaddoura I, Abu-Sittah G, Ibrahim A, Karamanoukian R, Papazian N. Burn injury: review of pathophysiology and therapeutic modalities in major burns. Ann Burns Fire Disasters. 2017;30(2):95.
  8. Kankam HK, Lee KC, Sardeli AV, Dretzke J, Lord JM, Moiemen N. Acute burn injuries associated with long-term mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Burns. 2022;48(8):1783-1793.
  9. Rice PL, Orgill D. Assessment and classification of burn injury. UpToDate 2021;
  10. Izadpanah A. Chemical burn: diagnosis and treatments. In: Handbook of Burns. Volume 1: Acute Burn Care. 2020:511-516.
  11. Khor D, AlQasas T, Galet C, et al. Electrical injuries and outcomes: a retrospective review. Burns. 2023
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  13. Al-Qattan MM, Al-Zahrani K. A review of burns related to traditions, social habits, religious activities, festivals and traditional medical practices. Burns. 2009;35(4):476-81.
  14. Waghmare CM. Radiation burn—from mechanism to management. Burns 2013;39(2):212-219.
  15. Abazari M, Ghaffari A, Rashidzadeh H, Badeleh SM, Maleki Y. A systematic review on classification, identification, and healing process of burn wound healing. Int J Low Extrem Wounds. 2022;21(1):18-30.
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13 — Pediatric Trauma

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  4. Javeed SS, Altawili MA, Almubarak LNA, et al. The effectiveness of prehospital administration of tranexamic acid in reducing mortality in trauma patients: an overview. Cureus. 2023;15(12):e49784. doi: 10.7759/cureus.49784
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  7. Becker HJ, Langhan ML. Can providers use clinical skills to assess the adequacy of ventilation in children during bag-valve mask ventilation? Pediatr Emerg Care. 2020;36(12):e695-e699. doi: 10.1097/PEC.0000000000001314
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14 — Geriatric Trauma

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  5. Connor D, Greaves I, Porter K, Bloch M; consensus group, Faculty of Pre-Hospital Care. Pre-hospital spinal immobilisation: an initial consensus statement. Emerg Med J. 2013 Dec;30(12):1067-9. doi: 10.1136/emermed-2013-203207. PMID: 24232011.
  6. Thompson L, Shaw G, Bates C, Hawkins C, McClelland G, McMeekin P. To collar or not to collar. Views of pre-hospital emergency care providers on immobilisation without cervical collars: a focus group study. Br Paramed J. 2021;6(1):38-45. doi:10.29045/14784726.2021.6.6.1.38.

15 — Trauma in Pregnancy

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  5. Keneally RJ, Cyr KL, Sherman M, et al. Trauma in obstetrical patients. J Emerg Trauma Shock. 2021;14(4):216-221.
  6. La Rosa M, Loaiza S, Zambrano MA, Escobar MF. Trauma in pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2020;63(2):447-454.
  7. Madden AM, Meng ML. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation in the pregnant patient. BJA Educ. 2020;20(8):252-258.
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  11. Arslan A. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy in carbon monoxide poisoning in pregnancy: maternal and fetal outcome. Am J Emerg Med. 2021;43:41-45. doi:10.1016/j.ajem.2021.01.007
  12. Al-Thani H, El-Menyar A, Sathian B, et al. Blunt traumatic injury during pregnancy: a descriptive analysis from a level 1 trauma center. Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg 2019;45:393-401. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00068-018-0948-1

16 — Environmental Emergencies

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  4. Robine JM, Cheung SL, Le Roy S, et al. Death toll exceeded 70,000 in Europe during the summer of 2003. C R Biol. 2008;331(2):171-178.
  5. Filep EM, Murata Y, Endres BD, Kim G, Stearns RL, Casa DJ. Exertional heat stroke, modality cooling rate, and survival outcomes: a systematic review. Medicina (Kaunas). 2020;56(11).
  6. Auerbach PS, et al. Pathophysiology of heat-related illnesses. In: Auerbach’s Wilderness Medicine. Philidelphia: Elsevier; 2017.
  7. Lipman GS, Gaudio FG, Eifling KP, Ellis MA, Otten EM, Grissom CK. Wilderness Medical Society clinical practice guidelines for the prevention and treatment of heat illness: 2019 update. Wilderness Environ Med. 2019;30(4S):S33-S46.
  8. Bergeron MF, Devore C, Rice SG, et al. Policy statement: climatic heat stress and exercising children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2011;128(3):e741-747.
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  12. Belval LN, Casa DJ, Adams WM, et al. Consensus statement: prehospital care of exertional heat stroke. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2018;22(3):392-397.
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  14. Hosokawa Y, Adams WM, Belval LN, Vandermark LW, Casa DJ. Tarp-assisted cooling as a method of whole-body cooling in hyperthermic individuals. Ann Emerg Med. 2017;69(3):347-352.
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  16. Danzl DF, Pozos RS, Auerbach PS, et al. Multicenter hypothermia survey. Ann Emerg Med. 1987;16(9):1042-1055.
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  20. Dow J, Giesbrecht GG, Danzl DF, Brugger H, Sagalyn EB, Walpoth B, et al. Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update. Wilderness Environ Med. 2019;30(4S):S47-S69.
  21. McIntosh SE, Freer L, Grissom CK, Auerbach PS, Rodway GW, Cochran A, et al. Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Frostbite: 2019 Update. Wilderness Environ Med. 2019;30(4S):S19-S32.
  22. Lott C, Truhlar A, Alfonzo A, Barelli A, Gonzalez-Salvado V, Hinkelbein J, et al. European Resuscitation Council Guidelines 2021: Cardiac arrest in special circumstances. Resuscitation. 2021;161:152-219.
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17 — Crush and Blast Injuries

  1. Explosions and Blast Injuries A Primer for Clinicians, CDC Injury Prevention
  2. Bukowski J, Nowadly CD, Schauer SG, Koyfman A, Long B. High risk and low prevalence diseases: blast injuries. Am J Emerg Med. 2023;70:46-56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajem.2023.05.003
  3. Pennardt A, Lavonas E. Blast Injuries. Updated August 6, 2021. Accessed May 1, 2024. https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/822587-overview
  4. Mathews ZR, Koyfman A. Blast injuries. J Emerg Med. 2015;49(4):573-587.
  5. Wolf SJ, Bebarta VS, Bonnett CJ, Pons PT, Cantrill SV. Blast injuries. Lancet. 2009;374(9687):405-415.
  6. Nunziato CA, Riley CJ, Johnson AE. How common are civilian blast injuries in the National Trauma Databank, and what are the most common mechanisms and characteristics of associated injuries? Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2021;479(4):683-691.
  7. Huang X, Hu X, Zhang L, Cai Z. Craniocerebral dynamic response and cumulative effect of damage under repetitive blast. Ann Biomed Eng. 2021;49(10):2932-2943.
  8. Born CT, et al. Disasters and mass casualties: II. Explosive, biologic, chemical, and nuclear agents. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2007;15(8):461-473.
  9. Sziklavari Z, Molnar TF. Blast injuries to the thorax. J Thorac Dis. 2019;11(suppl 2):S167-S171.
  10. Kheir WJ, et al. Ophthalmic injuries after the Port of Beirut blast: one of largest nonnuclear explosions in history. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2021;139(9):937-943.
  11. Brewster CT, Forbes K, Handford C, et al. Planning for UK terror attacks: analysis of blast and ballistic injuries. Injury. 2021;52(5):1221-1226.
  12. Rankin IA, Nguyen TT, Carpanen D, Darwood A, Clasper JC, Masouros SD. Pelvic protection limiting lower limb flail reduces mortality. J Biomech Eng. 2021;143(2):021004.
  13. Eskridge SL, Macera CA, Galarneau MR, et al. Injuries from combat explosions in Iraq: injury type, location, and severity. Injury. 2012;43(10):1678-1682.
  14. Ballivet de Régloix S, Crambert A, Maurin O, Lisan Q, Marty S, Pons Y. Blast injury of the ear by massive explosion: a review of 41 cases. J R Army Med Corps. 2017;163(5):333-338.

18 — Considerations in High-Threat and Tactical Settings

  1. Bachman MW, Anzalone BC, Williams JG, et al. Evaluation of an integrated rescue task force model for active threat response. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2019; 23: 309-318.
  2. Blair JP, Schweit KW. A study of active shooter incidents in the United States between 2000 and 2013. Washington, DC: Texas State University and Federal Bureau of Investigations, US Department of Justice, 2014.
  3. Bobko JP, Sinha M, Chen D, et al. A tactical medicine after-action report of the San Bernardino terrorist incident. West J Emerg Med. 2018; 19(2):287-293.
  4. Butler FK, Hagmann J, Butler EG. Tactical combat casualty care in special operations. Mil Med. 1996;161:1-16.
  5. Butler FK, Hagmann JH, Richards DT. Management of urban warfare casualties in special operations. Mil Med. 2000;165(suppl 1):1-48.
  6. Callaway DW, Smith ER, Shapiro G, et al. The Committee for Tactical Emergency Care (C-TECC): evolution and application of TCCC guidelines to civilian high threat medicine. J Spec Oper Med. 2011;11:104-122.
  7. Cavaliere GA, Alfalasi R, Jasani GN, et al. Terrorist attacks against health care facilities: a review. Health Secur. 2021;19:546-550.
  8. Eastridge BJ, Mabry RL, Seguin P, et al. Death on the battlefield (2001–2011): implications for the future of combat casualty care. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2012;S431-S437.
  9. Hirsch M, Carli P, Nizard R, et al. The medical response to multisite terrorist attacks in Paris. Lancet. 2015;386:2535-2538.
  10. Klassen AB, Marshall M, Dai M, Mann NC, Sztajnkrycer MD. Emergency medical services response to mass shooting and active shooter incidents, United States, 2014–2015. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2019;23:159-166.
  11. Klein Y, Arieli I, Sagiv S, Peleg K, Ben-Galim P. Cervical spine injuries in civilian victims of explosions: should cervical collars be used? J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2016;80(6):985-988.
  12. Kotwall RS, Montgomery HR, Kotwal BM, et al. Eliminating preventable death on the battlefield. Arch Surg. 2011;146:1350-1358.
  13. Patzkowski JC, Blair JA, Schoenfeld AJ, Lehman RA, Hsu JR; the Skeletal Trauma Research Consortium (STReC). Multiple associated injuries are common with spine fractures during war. Spine J. 2012;12(9):791-797.
  14. Schoenfeld AJ, Lehman RA Jr, Hsu JR. Evaluation and management of combat-related spinal injuries: a review based on recent experiences. Spine J. 2012;12(9):817-823.
  15. Service Medical du RAID. Tactical emergency medicine: lessons from the Paris marauding terrorist attack. Crit Care. 2016;20:37.
  16. Smith ER, Shapiro G, Sarani B. The profile of wounding in civilian public mass shooting fatalities. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2016;81:86-92.
  17. Thompson J, Rehn M, Lossius HM, et al. Risks to emergency medical responders at terrorist incidents: a narrative review of the medical literature. Crit Care. 2014;18:521.
  18. Tin D, Hart A, Ciottone GR. Hardening hospital defenses as a counter-terrorism medicine measure. Am J Emerg Med. 2021;45:667-668.
  19. Turner CDA, Lockey DJ, Rehn M. Pre-hospital management of mass casualty civilian shootings: a systematic literature review. Crit Care. 2016;20:362.
  20. Vanderlan WB, Tew BE, McSwain NE Jr. Increased risk of death with cervical spine immobilisation in penetrating cervical trauma. Injury. 2009;40:880-883.
  21. Velopulos CG, Shihab HM, Lottenberg L, et al. Prehospital spine immobilization/spinal motion restriction in penetrating trauma: a practice management guideline from the Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma (EAST). J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2018;84(5):736-744.
  22. White CC 4th, Domeier RM, Millin MG; Standards and Clinical Practice Committee, National Association of EMS Physicians. EMS spinal precautions and the use of the long backboard: resource document to the position statement of the National Association of EMS Physicians and the American College of Surgeons Committee on Trauma. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2014;18(2):306-314.

19 — Pain Control in the Prehospital Setting

  1. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Unfallchirurgie. Polytrauma/Schwerverletzten-Behandlung. Accessed July 24, 2023. https://www.awmf.org/leitlinien/detail/ll/187-023.html
  2. Häske D, Böttiger BW, Bouillon B, et al. Analgesia in patients with trauma in emergency medicine: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2017;114:785-792. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2017.0785
  3. Karlsen APH, Pedersen DMB, Trautner S, Dahl JB, Hansen MS. Safety of intranasal fentanyl in the out-of-hospital setting: a prospective observational study. Ann Emerg Med. 2014;63(6):699-703. doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2013.10.025
  4. Bendall JC, Simpson PM, Middleton PM. Prehospital vital signs can predict pain severity. Eur J Emerg Med. 2011;18(6):334-339. doi:10.1097/mej.0b013e328344fd
  5. Bounes V, Barniol C, Minville V, Houze-Cerfon C-H, Ducassé, JL. Predictors of pain relief and adverse events in patients receiving opioids in a prehospital setting. Am J Emerg Med. 2011;29(5):512-517. doi:10.1016/j.ajem.2009.12.00
  6. Scholten AC, Berben SA, et al. Pain management in trauma patients in (pre)hospital based emergency care: current practice versus new guideline. Injury. 2015;46:798-806. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.injury.2014.10.045
  7. Williams OD, Pluck G. The use of methoxyflurane (Penthrox®) for procedural analgesia in the emergency department and pre-hospital environment. Trauma. 2020;22(2):85-93. doi:10.1177/1460408619850038

20 — Helicopter Transportation

  1. Lyng JW, et al. Appropriate air medical services utilization and recommendations for integration of air medical services resources into the EMS system of care: a joint position statement and resource document of NAEMSP, ACEP, and AMPA. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2021;25:854-873. https://doi.org/10.1080/10903127.2021.1967534
  2. Northern Ohio Trauma System. Field Triage Algorithm. MetroHealth/Cleveland Clinic/University Hospitals, Cleveland, OH. 2019.
  3. Collins T. HEMS Report Format. MetroHealth Medical Center, 2019.
  4. Galvagno SM Jr, et al. Helicopter emergency medical services for adults with major trauma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;12:CD009228–CD009228. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009228.pub3
  5. Vianen,NJ, et al. prehospital traumatic cardiac arrest: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg. 2022;48:3357-3372, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00068-022-01941-y. PubMed, 35333932
  6. Diaz Marco A, Hendey G, Bivins H. When is the helicopter faster? A comparison of helicopter and ground ambulance transport times. J Trauma. 2005;58:148-153. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ta.0000124264.43941.41

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